Navigation

"Making your way in the world today
Takes everything you got.
Taking a break from all your worries
sure would help a lot.
Wouldn't you like to get away?
Sometimes you want to go
where everybody knows your name.”

These are the beginning lyrics from the theme song of a popular television show. As the autumn hunt has wrapped up, and winter begins to tighten its icy grip, my mind drifts toward ice fishing, rabbit hunting, and other winter activities. I truly enjoy all the winter fun Michigan has to offer. Being an outdoorsman, I know how important it is to prepare for the future. I spend a fair amount of my winter preparing for the upcoming year. I constantly read, and practice to improve my skills.

When I was studying martial arts, a black belt told me I would not truly start to learn until I earned my black belt and began to teach. While I did not think so at the time, he was of course correct. 2018 marked my 11th season teaching survival classes. I have been lucky to meet so many people from all walks of life. I have had a ball and made some great friends. Just as with martial arts, teaching survival has helped me really learn the art of survival. It is only when you break down an action or task in order to be able to teach it to someone else, that you learn it inside and out.

Getting back to the lyrics of that song for a moment; I would change the last few lines. A true outdoorsman yearns to go where no one knows their name, because there is no one around. We want to get far afield of the urban jungle, and experience nature in the most pristine manner available. For many of us this means hiking. One of the unfortunate downsides to hiking, is the risk of getting lost. I have always maintained that I am never truly lost, because I am always right where I am. While this may satisfy me in a philosophical manner, it does nothing to help me get back to a warm camp.

I am amazed by how few people know how to find their way in the natural world. I mean this literally not figuratively. In the event they become turned around in the forest, most people think carrying a compass will help them find their way back to civilization. This only works if you know your current location, the location of said civilization, and the direction you must travel. GPS units offer this functionality at a very reasonable price. I love my Garmin GPSMAP 64ST. It is always in my pack. Unfortunately, GPS units run on batteries, and when the batteries run down, the GPS becomes dead weight. I may be old fashioned, but I also carry a good compass in my pocket. The compass I carry is a military style Cammenga tritium lensatic compass marked in both degrees and mils. I use this in concert with detailed topographical maps of the area. With this system, I can find my location based upon terrain features. Once I know where I am, I can then use the map to find the most direct path to where I want to go.

I would suggest that prior to heading out on your next hike, you should visit the US Geological Service’s website https://store.usgs.gov/map-locator, and order detailed topographical maps for the area you plan to hike. Having a topo map and a good compass will help to ensure you make it back to your loved ones. You can purchase hard copy maps from their website. You can also download free pdf versions. Using the USGS website, I have downloaded these free topographical maps for most of Michigan. I have added a Michigan topographical map section my website. The State is shown as a clickable map. Once you click on a section, you will be taken to a closeup of that area. Clicking on a section of this closeup will allow you to download a pdf of that map.

Topographic maps and GPS coordinate systems

A coordinate system is a means to reference or locate anything on the earth’s surface. The problem arises from the fact that the earth is a sphere, and as such is difficult to transfer to a 2-dimensional X and Y grid system. There are three main coordinate systems in use today. The GCS or Geographic Coordinate System uses latitude and longitude to affix a position. This system has been in use for over 2 thousand years. It works very well and can help get you to the ball park. One of the shortcomings is that it is not typically specific enough to find your seat once you get to the ball park. The GCS is based upon degrees, minutes, and seconds. This system is difficult for many people to grasp.

The UTM or Universal Transverse Mercator, separates the globe into 60 separate 6 degree numbered zones based upon longitude (north, south). This system is based upon the meter. This is a measurement with which most people are familiar. These zones begin at the Prime Meridian, which is a north south line drawn perpendicular to the equator, and bisecting Greenwich England. These 60 zones are each then divided into 20 lettered sections based upon latitude (east, west). The letters start at A and B in the Antarctic and proceed to Y and Z in the arctic. The only sections of the earth not covered by the UTM are the actual polar regions. I and O are not used in the lettering system as they are easily confused with 1 and 0. There is a pneumonic that helps to remember these sections. N is for Northern hemisphere. M and below is the southern hemisphere, while N through Z is northern. It is important to look to the legend at the bottom of your topographic map to determine which UTM zone you are viewing. Once you are familiar with the zones, it is easy to locate your specific seat in the ball park.

There is a 3rd coordinate system called the State Plane Coordinate System. This system is not widely used, and as such shall remain beyond the scope of this article.

Understanding topographic map objects

Have you ever wished life came with an instruction booklet? Topographic maps come close to filling that bill. That is of course for that portion of life spent in the natural world. Topo maps are a wonderful resource to anyone venturing afield. They contain all the information necessary to find your way through the bush, and back to society.

While there are many sources for topographic maps, we will be using those issued By the United States Geological Survey. Someone first looking at a topo map might be intimidated by all the lines and symbols. Along the top and bottom, and sides of the map are numbers and tick marks. These numbers and ticks are two separate coordinate systems. One is the Geographic Coordinate System, or GCS, and the other is the Universal Transverse Mercator, or UTM.

A USGS topo map shows 100,000 square meters. At the bottom of the map is a legend identifying many of the symbols. Bottom left is the section that tells you the date the map was created, the grid size, and the UTM zone. It also contains the UTM magnetic north declination. The center part of the legend identifies the scale of the map in kilometers, meters, miles, and feet. The right section contains an icon showing the section of the state shown by the topo map. It also identifies the topo maps adjacent to the current one. The final section identifies each symbol used on the map.

Topo map symbols are color coded. Green denotes vegetation. Brown denotes topographic features. Blue denotes water. While black and red denote man-made objects. Surface roads and trails are indicated by black lines, while interstate highways are denoted with red lines.

Contour Lines indicate elevation. These are the lines that show the topography, or terrain, on the map. Contour lines are shown in brown. Two types of contour lines are shown. Regular contour lines are the thinner brown lines, index contour lines are the thicker brown lines. The numbers written in brown along the contour lines indicate elevation of the line. USGS maps mark elevation in feet above sea level.

Forested areas are shown as shaded green shaded areas. Non-forested areas are left white. Please note that this information is not always up to date or accurate. Michigan has been selling off its forests at record pace. I have been forced from a couple of my old class sites, because the forests have been clear cut, but that is a discussion for another time.

Streams, rivers, and other bodies of water are shown in blue.

Trails are represented as thin single dashed lines. Roads are represented as double back lines or thicker red lines. A series of symbols are used to indicate the road quality; from double dashed lines for dirt roads to thick red lines for major highways.

Buildings, like other man-made features are shown in black. Solid squares typically denote inhabited buildings, while uninhabited buildings are typically denoted by hollow squares.

While not physical features, Boundaries are shown on topographic maps by black or red lines. They are usually represented by broken lines. Different patterns denote different types of boundaries, Things like parks, state, and national forests are typical instances of boundaries specified. They also show the boundaries of cities, counties, and states, etc.

Like all man-made objects, Bench Marks are black in color. They indicate spots where the elevation has been surveyed, rather than estimated from satellite data. Not all maps will have benchmark locations. If a marker has been placed there, the corresponding bench mark will be denoted by a triangle. If no marker was left, the bench mark will be indicated by a black x. Regardless of the bench mark symbol used, the letters "BM" and an elevation number will be adjacent to that location. There is a wealth if information contained on a topographic map. I would suggest obtaining one for the next area you plan to hike.

Topographical Map Features
THERE ARE 5 MAJOR TERRAIN FEATURES SHOW ON A TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP.
They are easily remembered with the pneumonic “Hidden Valley Ranch Salad Dressing”; Hill, Valley, Ridge, Saddle, Depression.

THERE ARE 5 MINOR TERRAIN FEATURES SHOW ON A TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP.
To remember them I made up the following pneumonic “Did Some Cool Cat Fall”; They are Draw, Spur, Cliff, Cut, and Fill.

Using a lensatic compass
Using a compass is an important skill everyone who ventures into the natural world should possess. Having a compass without knowing how to use it is like owning a truck and not knowing how to drive. It may look good, but it is useless for getting you from point A to point B. The first step in using your compass is to familiarize yourself with the various parts. For the purposes of this article we will concentrate on my favorite compass, the lensatic. While it may look intimidating, it is rather simple to use. Its features make navigation a breeze. I have borrowed the following image and text from the online Cammenga user’s manual. The manual text is in blue.

1. Luminous Bezel Indicator: Used to mark an azimuth during day or night.
2. Dial: Displays direction in reference to Magnetic North. The Dial is divided into two scales;
a. Outer - (black printing) graduated in mils.
• 6400 mils to a circle
• Distance between black marks = 20 mils
• Distance between black numerals = 200 mils
• N=64(6400), e=16(1600), S=32(3200), W=48(4800) mils
b. Inner - (red printing) graduated in degrees
• 360 degrees to a circle
• Distance between red marks = 5 degrees
• Distance between red numerals - 20 degrees
• N-0, E=90, S=180, W=270 degrees
3. Scale Edge - 5-inch ruled scale (120 millimeters).
Graduated at a ratio of 1:50,000. Distance on a 1:50,000-scale map can be measured up to 6000 meters or 3.7 miles. The scale edge is useful for measuring distances, orienting a map and aligning azimuths.
4. Sight Wire: Used along with the Sight Groove (12) of the Lens Bracket (10) to set a course of movement over the ground; or determine an azimuth by sighting on prominent terrain features while reading the Dial (2) using the Lens (11).
5. Bezel: Contains the Luminous Bezel Indicator (1). Has a serrated edge and rotates with a distinct clicking action. Each click moves the Luminous Bezel Indicator 3 degrees. 6. Case Cover: Closes to protect the compass and reduce carrying size. When opened wide (fig. 1), it can be used as a straight edge or ruler. When perpendicular (fig. 2), the Sight Wire (4) is used to set a course of movement.
7. Case: Contains and protects the Dial assembly.
8. Thumb-Loop: Locks the compass in the closed position. When opened, it facilitates holding the compass to sight an azimuth. (fig. 2).
9. Lanyard: A loop of braided nylon cord to secure the compass around the neck and ease access to it when carried in a shirt pocket.
10. Lens Bracket: When pushed all the way down it raises the Dial off the pivot. When the compass is not being used, it is important to raise the Dial in order to prevent damage to the pivot (point on which the Dial balances).
11. Lens: High quality magnifier (about 2.5-inch focal length) for reading the Dial when positioned about 30 degrees off perpendicular. Handle carefully with clean tissue. Caution: Close Lens Bracket against Bezel glass before closing case cover.
12. Sight Groove: Used to set a course of movement over the ground and to determine an azimuth when it is used along with the Sight Wire (4), the Index Line (13), and the Dial (2).
13. Index Line: Black line etched on the crystal over the Dial. Used to read an azimuth.

It is now time to use the compass to determine a direction. This is called sighting an azimuth. Begin by opening the lensatic compass as shown in the picture. The Case cover should be perpendicular (90°) to the case. Now tilt the Lens Bracket about 30° from perpendicular. Make sure the Dial floats freely. Next insert your thumb through thumb loop. Now hold the compass level on the platform created by the thumb and bent index finger. Now raise the compass to eye level and align the center of the sighting groove in the lens bracket with the sight wire, and a distant object. Now, without moving your head, or the compass, read the azimuth through the lens of the lens bracket. Record or remember the degrees. This is the red number. You can also choose to use the mil scale, which is shown in black. I typically use the degree scale, as that is the one with which I am most familiar and comfortable.

Now that you have set an azimuth it is time to set a course or follow an azimuth. Hold the compass in the same manner you did when sighting an azimuth and rotate your body so that the black line on the bezel is directly over the degrees of your azimuth. Now sighting through the sight groove, pick an object that is in line with your azimuth, and walk to it. Once there, repeat this procedure to pick another object, and walk to it. Continue to do this until you reach your destination. This is called line of sight navigation.

There is a second method of navigation that I much prefer. For the purposes of this tutorial, we are going to use the azimuth of 45 degrees. This means our desired direction of travel is north east. For this method of navigation, we will need just a small amount of math. Subtract 45° from 360°, and the result is 315°. Instead of rotating the compass until the index line is located over 45°, stand with the compass indicator line pointing north, and rotate the bezel so that the luminous bezel indicator line is located directly over the 315° mark. Now in order to navigate along your desired azimuth you need only hold the compass level and rotate your body until the north arrow is directly under the luminous bezel indicator. You are now facing 45°, north east, and can simply walk straight ahead. I prefer this method of navigation as the tritium luminous bezel indicator allows it to be used even at night. There are other methods of navigation, but I have chosen only two, so as not to make your head explode.

Navigating with a topographic map and compass

I know this article has given you a lot of information. I also know that information can seem daunting. Rest assured that putting this information to work for you is not as difficult as you might think. Practicing with your map and a compass is the fun part. We will break our lesson down into two separate parts. First, we will talk about how, using terrain features, you can determine your current location. After you understand how to do that, we will discuss how to navigate to a specific point on the map.

The problem I find most people experience when first trying to interpret terrain features on a topo map, is converting a 2-dimensional map into our 3-dimensional world. We talked about the brown contour lines on a topo map. These are much more than a bunch of squiggly lines on a piece of paper. It is first necessary to refer to the legend on the bottom of the map to find contour interval of the map. Simply put, this is the distance the space between the lines represents. The farther apart the lines are spaced, the slower the elevation change. Conversely, the closer the lines are together, the quicker the elevation change. The shape of the contour lines denotes the shape of the terrain. Rounded lines that are relatively close together indicate a rounded rise in elevation. If these lines lead up to a closed circle, they indicate a hill. It is important to imagine how the terrain features in your area might be drawn on a topographic map. If you can picture this in your head, then all you need to do is locate those same features on the map.

Triangulation is a very important skill to learn. Triangulation is the process of using three or more objects or terrain features to affix your location. There will usually be more than one place on the map with similar features. If you can locate 3 distinct objects relatively close to you, it is possible to use these to triangulate your position. If you are unable to see 3 distinct terrain features in your area, try walking until you are in an area that is high and open enough that you can see a good distance. The greater the distance you can see, the more accurate your triangulation.

Start by locating the first object and using your compass to find its direction in relation to your position. Repeat this process with for at least two more objects. It is best when these objects are all around you. If not, it will be a bit more difficult to pinpoint your location. Once you have the three objects identified, find these same features on the topographic map. Once you have them located, orient the map facing north according to the map legend. Make sure to remember to rotate the map according to the magnetic north declination shown on the map. Magnetic north declination is the difference between magnetic north and true north. Once you have the map properly oriented, you can now use your compass to draw a line through each of the terrain features you identified. Do not worry, this is much easier than it sounds. Open your map and lie it flat. Allowing for magnetic declination, rotate the map to orient it with magnetic north. Now using a pencil, mark each of the objects you sighted. Place your open compass on top of the map and rotate it until the corresponding degree of your first object is under the bezel indicator line. Being careful to maintain the proper orientation, move the compass so that the scale edge bisects the first object on the map, and draw a pencil line from that object back through the center of the objects you chose. Repeat these steps for the other two objects you chose. Your current location should be the point at which the 3 lines intersect. Now that you know where you are, you can use that information to navigate to where you want to go.

With your map lying flat, and oriented properly toward magnetic north, mark the location of your final destination. Now position your compass so that the scale edge bisects your current position and that of your final destination. Make note of the degree located under the bezel indicator line. This is your azimuth. You can now navigate to your final destination.